Assessment Kelompok 9

In some situations, simulated performance testing might be used as the final assessment of a performance skill. This would be the case in assessing students laboratory performance in chemistry, for example. In many situations, however, skill in a simulated setting simply indicates readiness to attempt actual performance. The student in driver training who has demonstrated driving skill in the simulator, for example, is now ready to apply his or her skill in the actual operation of an automobile.

Work sample. The work requires the student to perform actual tasks that are representative of the total performance to be measured. The sample tasks typically include the most crucial elements of the total performance and are performed under controlled conditions. In being tested for automobile driving skill, for example, the student is required to drive over a standard course that includes the most common problem situations likely to be encountered in normal driving. The performance on the standard course is then used as evidence of the ability to drive an automobile under typical operating conditions.

            Performance assessments in business education and industrial education are frequently of the work-sample type. When students are required to take and transcribe shorthand notes from dictation, type a business letter, or operate a computer to analyze business data, a work-sample assessment is being employed. Similarly, in industrial education, a work-sample approach is being used when students are required to complete a metalworking or wood working project that includes all of the steps likely to be encountered in an actual job situation (steps such as designing, ordering, materials, and constructing). Still other examples are the operation of machinery, the repair of equipment, and the performance of job-oriented laboratory tasks. The work-sample approach to assessing performance is widely used in occupations involving performance skills, and many of these situations can be duplicated in the school setting.

Student project. One of the most comprehensive types of performance assessments involves the student project. This approach involves a combination of academic, communication, and thinking skills in the solving of unstructured real-world problems, the construction of a unique product, or both. It typically involves multiple outcomes and criteria for each, and student participation in developing criteria, selecting the problem to investigate, designing and carrying out the study, and evaluating the results (see box 9.4)

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            To illustrate the of projects in assessment, we will focus on a problem-solving type of project. Typically, an unstructured problem, like those in the real world, is used so that there is no simple or single solution. This increase the complexity of the problem and provides for greater focus on higher-level learning outcomes (e.g., analyzing, evaluating, creating). It also provides for the assessment of a greater range of skills useful later in life (e.g., locating resources, writing, speaking, self-assessment).

            A common outline for a problem-solving project includes the following items.

1.      Establishing criteria and standards .

2.      Selecting and stating the problem.

3.      Locating and selecting resources

4.      Writing the report

5.      Designing and completing a research study or making a product.

6.      Orally presenting and defending the project.

Each of these steps is guided by the teacher and involves considerable student-teacher collaboration.

Establishing criteria and standards Because of the multiple outcomes expected from a project, criteria must be established in many areas. For example, criteria for each of the major areas (i.e., problem selection, research skills, report writing, product design and construction, and oral presentation). Throughout these areas, or as separate categories, criteria must also be established for  level of thinking shown and general problem-solving skills.

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These criteria may be developed by the teacher or they may be cooperatively prepared with the student. The latter procedure tends to provide greater understanding of the criteria by students and tens to be more motivating. The final list of criteria should be checked against the instructional objectives to be sure they are in agreement.

            Standards that describe levels of success on each criterion should be set at the same time as the criteria are prepared. These may be stated for use in holistic scoring rubrics or may be included as part of a rating scale to be used in evaluating the project (see Box .5).

Selecting and stating the problem. Students should be free to select a problem that interests them, but the selection may require considerable help from the teacher. In a traditional class room , many students are in the “tell me what to do” mode; and one or two conferences may be needed to help them think about possible problems to study. In helping students select a problem, it is important to keep in mind how suitable the problem is for the student. Is it too difficult or too easy for the student? Does it provide an opportunity for new learning, or is it one the student already has studied? Will the problem be motivating to the student or one that is done grudgingly? Will the problem provide significant learning experiences that are in harmony with the in tended learning outcomes? These and similar concerns will aid in helping the student select an appropriate and worthwhile problem to study.

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            Students also typically need help in phrasing the problem so that it is clear, objective, and realistic. Stating the problem in question form usually provides the crux of the problem most effectively. For example, changing “Study of the Environment” to “How Can We Improve the Environment?” helps provide a focus on a major problem. From here it is possible to go to more specific statements, such as “How Can We Improve the Air or Water?” Asking students to put their topics in question form forces them to pose problems. It is then just a matter of helping the refine the statements until they are clear and realistic.

            If criteria for selecting and stating a problem have been developed beforehand, as should be done, they can be stated in evaluation form and serve as an aid in the process. They can also, of course, provide a basis for later assessment of the project. Criteria such as the following can be combined with other project criteria and used as a basis for a rating scale.

1.      Selects and states a realistic problem.

1.1  Is the problem in harmony with the student’s present knowledge and skill?

1.2  Does the problem provide opportunities for the student to learn new knowledge and skills?

1.3  Does the problem provide opportunities for assessing cognitive and communication skills?

1.4  Does the problem relate to real-world situations?

1.5  Does the problem have more than one possible solution?

1.6  Is the problem stated clearly?

1.7  Is the statement of the problem free from bias and distortion?

In stating the criteria, it is important that they be understandable to the students. This can be accomplished by having the students help develop the criteria. If the problem requires teacher-prepared criteria, they can be presented to the students for clarification and rewording as needed. In any event, criteria should be clear to students and available to them at the beginning of the project. This will provide a focus for doing the project and a guide for self-assessment and peer assessment later.

Locating and Selecting Resources After stating the problem clearly, the student is expected to go to reference books and other sources to gather information. Other sources might include interviews with knowledgeable people in the community (e.g. banker, accountant, doctor, scientist), observation of a process (e.g. council meeting, trial, bakery operation), or writing a letter to a congressional representative requesting information. The point is, students are expected to obtain information from any source that can provide help with the problem – as we do in real life.

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            This phase of the project might include criteria similar to the following.

2.      Selects appropriate resource material

2.1     Has a variety of resources been selected?

2.2     Is the resource material relevant to the problem?

2.3     Do the resources provide various possible solutions to the problem?

2.4     Does the resource material include evidence supporting the suggested solutions?

2.5     Is there enough resource material to provide for valid conclusions?

Writing the Report The written report provides an opportunity for students to combine ideas from various sources, analyze and interpret the findings, and summarize and draw conclusions. The criteria for judging the report should be used as a guide for writing it. The written report provides an important means of assessing higher-order thinking skills and, thus, they should be reflected in the criteria.

            The following list illustrates how criteria might be stated for the written report.

3.      Writes a clear and effective report.

3.1     Has the problem been clearly stated?

3.2     Have the study procedures been adequately described?

3.3     Has the material from various sources been analyzed, compared, and evaluated?

3.4     Have the findings been integrated into a well-organized report?

3.5     Have the findings been supported by adequate and relevant information?

3.6     Does the summary include the main points?

3.7     Are the conclusions in harmony with the findings and the limits of the study?

3.8     Does the report exhibit good reasoning ability?

The specific nature of the criteria will, of course, be influenced by the content, instructional objectives, and level of the instruction. Emphasis on reasoning ability might require more specific criteria on the quality of the questions raised, the relevance of the arguments, and distinctions between supported and unsupported statements. Emphasis on communication skills might call for criteria on the clarity of the writing, on grammar, and on spelling. At lower grades, the criteria would, of course, need to be modified to fit the age level of the students. Our illustrative criteria are general and simply show how the intended learning outcomes might be stated so that they are most useful for instruction, learning, and assessment. If properly stated, they can be easily converted to a rating scale by adding numbers from 1 to 4, representing different levels of performance.

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           In any event, the student should be aware of the completed list of criteria before writing this report, use them to evaluate the report, and then to revise the report as needed. It is helpful for the teacher to evaluate the report and compare the ratings with those of the student in a conference before the student revises the report. Peer evaluations, of course, may also be used.

Designing and Completing a. Research Study or Making a Product  In some cases the written report may serve as a basis for a research study. In others, the written report may serve as a basis for constructing a product. This might be a map, poster, chart, graph, model, or some other type of exhibit illustrating the findings. Or it might be a wood or metal product, as in the vocational area. In this case, the focus of the project may be on designing and constructing the product, but the study phase is still important. For a wood working project, for example, the study phase may involve a comparison of different types of wood, various construction procedures, or a history of the product (e.g., making a replica of an antique chair). The study phase provides for the combining of academic and vocational skills in carrying out the project and increases the opportunity for including higher level thinking skills in the project.

           Criteria for assessing the research or product should be stated in the same manner as those listed earlier. The specific nature of the criteria for a research study will depend on the type of problem being studied. However, there are some general criteria that should be considered, such as the use of proper procedures, control of variables, selection and use of equipment, accuracy of measurements, adequacy of interpretation of results, and the validity of conclusions. Adapting these and similar criteria to the specific research project and phrasing them in terms the students can understand provide a sound basis for conducting the research and for its later assessment.

           The criteria for a product will depend on the type of product that is being constructed and its relation to the written report. If an exhibit, such as a graph or poster, is being constructed as part of the project, for example, the criteria will include how well it illustrates the findings, its ease of interpretation, and the like. For a woodworking project, the criteria might be concerned with both the procedure (e.g., selection of tools and materials, the use of tools and machines, etc) and the product (e.g., appearance, meeting specifications, and functioning properly). As indicated earlier, the criteria should be known to students before starting on the construction project. It is also helpful to put the criteria in rating form, as illustrated later in the chapter to clarify how they will be used in the assessment.

           Orally Presenting and Defending the Project.  Upon completion of the project, it may be desirable to have each student describe the procedures and findings to a group of students, parents, or members of the community. The nature of the group depends on the purpose of the assessment, the type of project, and how the school is organized.

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           The final presentation gives the student practice in public speaking and in defending his or her work. This, of course, also provides another opportunity to evaluate higher order thinking skills through use of questions that require the student to defend the procedures, findings, and products of the project. As with order phases of the project, evaluation of the presentation is guided by a set of criteria developed at the beginning of the project and fully shared with the students.

           The expanded project described here includes multiple outcomes, such as research skills, writing skills, speaking skills, thinking skills, self assessment skills, and, in some cases, vocational skills. The specific nature of such a project will, of course, vary with the area of instruction and the purpose of the project. It is helpful to review descriptions of how this and other types of expanded performance assessments are functioning in the schools. The list of references at the end of the chapter provides numerous descriptions and examples of performance assessment in action.

Selecting the Method of Observing,

Recording , and Scoring.

Whether judging procedures, products, or some combination of the two, some type of guided observation and method of recording and scoring the results is needed. Commonly used procedures include (1) systematic observation and anecdotal records, (2) checklists, (3) rating scales, and (4) scoring rubrics.

Systematic Observation and Anecdotal record   Observing students in natural settings is one of the most common methods of assessing performance outcomes. Unfortunately, the observations are typically unsystematic, and frequently no record is made of the observation. For minor performance tasks that are easily corrected, like how to hold a paintbrush or how to label a graph, informal observation may be all that is needed. For more comprehensive performance situations, however, the observations should be systematic and typically some record of the observation should be made. This will enhance their objectivity, meaningfulness at a later date.

           Observations are frequently guided by checklists or rating scales, but there is some advantage in making and recording less structured observations. For example, noting how students approach a task, how persistent they are in completing it, and how carefully they work has significance for evaluating their success in performing the task. Similarly, one student may need assistance on every step of the performance, while another student completes the task early and turns to help others. These important aspects of performance are apt to be overlooked by more structured observational devices but can be described in anecdotal records.

           An anecdotal record is a brief description of some significant event. It typically includes the observed behavior, the setting in which it occurred,

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and a separate interpretation of the event. Although keeping anecdotal records can be time consuming, the task can be kept manageable by limiting the records to certain types of behavior (e.g., safety) and to those individuals needing the most help (e.g., slow, careless). The records are likely to be most useful when (1) they focus on meaningful incidents, (2) they are recorded soon after the incident, (3) the contain enough information to be understandable later, and (4)  the observed incident and its interpretation are kept separate. What is desired is a brief, objective, self-sufficient description of a meaningful incident and a separate  interpretation (if needed) of what the incident means. As these records of events accumulate for a particular individual, a typical pattern of behavior is obtained.

Checklists The checklist is basically a list of measurable dimensions of a performance or product, with a place to record a simple “yes” or “no” judgment. If a checklist were used to evaluate a set of procedures, for example, the steps to be followed might be placed in sequential order on the form; the observer would then simply check whether each action was taken or not taken. Such a checklist for evaluating the proper use of an oral thermometer is shown in figure 9.3 a checklist for evaluating a product typically contains a list of the dimensions that characterize a good product (size, color, shape, and so on), and a lace to check whether each desired characteristic is present or absent. Thus, the checklist simply directs attention to the elements to be observed and provides a convenient means of recording judgments.

Construction of a checklist fo performance assessment involves the following steps.

1.   List the procedural steps or product characteristic to be evaluated.

2.   Add common errors to the list, if such is useful in diagnosing poor performance.

Direction: place a check in front of each step as it is performed.

1)   Removes thermometer from container by grasping non bulb end.

2)   Wipes thermometer downward from non bulb end with fresh wiper.

3)   Shakes thermometer down to less than 96⁰ while holding non bulb end.

4)   Places bulb end of thermometer under patient’s tongue

5)   Tells patient to close lips but to avoid biting on thermometer.

6)   Leaves thermometer in patient’s mouth for three minutes

7)   Removes thermometer from patient’s  mouth by grasping non blub end

8)   Reads temperature to the nearest two-tenths of a degree.

9)   Records temperature reading on patient’s chart

10)  Cleans thermometer and replaces in container

Figure 9.3checklist for evaluating the proper use of an oral thermometer.

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1.   Arrange the list in some logical order(e.g., sequence of steps)

2.   Provide instruction and a place for checking each item

3.   Add a place for comments at the bottom of the from, if needed

Rating scales. The rating scale is similar to the checklist and serves somewhat the same purpose in judging procedures and products. The main difference is that the rating scale provides an opportunity to mark the degree to which an elements is present instead of using the simple “present-absent” judgment. The scale for rating is typically based on the frequency with which an action is performed (e.g., always, sometimes, never), the general quality of a performance (e.g., outstanding, above average, average, below average), or a set of descriptive phrases that indicates degrees of acceptable performance (e.g., completes task quickly, slow in completing task, cannot complete task without help). Like the checklist, the rating scale directs attention to the dimensions to be observed and provides a convenient from on which to record the judgments.

A sample rating scale for evaluating both procedures and product is shown in figure 9.4. although this numerical rating scale uses fixed alternatives,

Directions: rate each of the following items by circling the appropriate number. The numbers represent the following values: 5-outstanding; 4- above average; 3-average; 2-below average; 1-unsatisfactory.

PROCEDURE RATING SCALE

How effective was the student’s performance in each of the following areas ?

5 4 3 2 1      (a) Preparing a detailed plan for the project

5 4 3 2 1      (b) Determining the amount of material needed

5 4 3 2 1      (c) Selecting the proper tools            

5 4 3 2 1      (d) Following the correct procedures for each operation

5 4 3 2 1      (e) Using tools properly and skillfully

5 4 3 2 1      (f) Using materials without unnecessary spoilage

5 4 3 2 1      (g) Completing the work within a reasonable amount of time

PRODUCT RATING SCALE

To what extent does the product meet the following criteria?

5 4 3 2 1      (a) The product appears neat and well constructed

5 4 3 2 1      (b) The dimension match the original plan

5 4 3 2 1      (c) The finish meets specifications

5 4 3 2 1      (d) The joints and parts fit properly

5 4 3 2 1      (e) The materials were used effectively

FIGURE 9.4 rating scale for a woodworking project

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The same scale items could be described by descriptive phrases that vary from item to item. A sample rating scale for a student project is presented in box 9.6. although this scale is not complete, it indicates how to arrange a scale for convenient recording and scoring.

           The construction of a rating scale for performance assessment typically includes the following steps.

1.   List the procedural steps or product characteristics to be evaluated

2.   Select the number of points to use on the scale and define them by descriptive terms or phrases.

3.   Arrange  the items on the rating scale so that they are easy to use

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4.   Provide clear, brief instruction that tell the rater how to mark items on the scale.

5.   Provide a place for comments, if needed for diagnostic or instructional purposes

Analytic Versus Holistic Scoring  rating scale are especially useful for analytic scoring. That is when we want a judgment on each criterion by which the performance or product is to be judged. In evaluating writing skill, for example, such things as organization, vocabulary, style, ideas, and mechanics might be judged separately. The rating scale then becomes an instrument for directing observation to these criteria and provides a convenient means of recording and scoring our judgments.

           Holistic scoring is based on an overall impression of the performance or product father than a consideration of the individual elements. The global judgment is made by assigning a numerical score to each performance or product. Typically, between 4 and 8 points are used, and an even number of points is favored to avoid a “middle dumping ground” evaluation consists of quickly examining the performance or product and assigning the number that matches the general impression of the performance or product. In the case of writing assessment, for example, the reader will read each writing sample quickly for overall impression and place it in one of the piles ranging from 4 to 1. It is assumed that good writing is more than a sum of the individual elements that go into writing and that holistic scoring will capture this total impression of the work.

           Scoring rubrics.  Holistic scoring can be guided by scoring rubrics that clarify what each level of quality is like. Scoring rubrics (i.e., scoring guides) for writing and a psychomotor skill are shown in boxes 9.7 and 9.8. these descriptions of each level do not provide for analysis of the product or the performance but simply list the criteria to keep in mind when making the overall judgment. Another way to clarify the meaning of each score level for a product is to use a product scale. This consists of a series of sample products that represent various degrees of quality. In writing assessment, for example, a writing sample representing each level of quality from 4 to 1 are reviewed, and each writing product is compared to the sample models and assigned the number of the sample it  matches most closely. Product scales are especially useful where the quality of the product is difficult to define (e.g., art, creative writing)

           For most instructional purposes, both holistic and analytic scoring are useful. One gives the global judgment of the performance or product and the other provides diagnostic information useful for improving performance. Where both are used, the global judgment should be made first so some specific element does not distort the general impression of the product.

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Making Performance assessments more Authentic

Performance assessment can be made more authentic by presenting performance tasks more like those in the real world. Real-world problems are open-ended, have no set strategies for solving them, and provide for the integration of cognitive, communication, and problem-solving skills.

           This broader conception of performance assessment and its role in the teaching-learning process is supported by the more recent conceptions of how students learn. Modern learning theory emphasizes the need for focusing on more complex learning outcomes, using more comprehensive student activities, engaging students in the activities and obtaining meaning from them, and using more realistic types of problem solving. This emphasis requires more elaborate performance assessment that integrates the various skills and ideas imbedded in the activities. Properly done, these expanded of students’ understanding and to their general educational development, in addition to their improvement of the particular skill activity.

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Summary of Points                           

1.   Performance assessment provide direct evidence of valued learning outcomes that cannot be adequately assessed by traditional paper-and-pencil testing, but they are time consuming to use and require greater use of judgment in scoring.

2.   Performance tasks contain knowledge and affective components as well as the skill component. All three components must be considered when planning performance assessment.

3.   Writing performance objectives involves stating each general objective so that it describes a skill or product and then defining it by a list of specific performance outcomes that are relevant, clarify an effective performance, and are stated in observable terms that are easily understood by students.

4.   Restricted performance tasks are highly structured and limited in scope (e.g., construct a graph). Extended performance tasks are typically less well structured and broad in scope (e.g., design and conduct an experiment)

5.   The first step in performance assessment is to specify the intended performance outcomes.

6.   Performance assessment may focus on a procedure (e.g., giving a speech) a product (e.g., a theme), or both (e.g., using tools properly in building a bookcase)

7.   In some cases, it may be desirable to emphasize procedure evaluation during the early stages of instruction (e.g., touch system in typing) and product evaluation later (typed letter)

8.   There are varying degrees of realism in performance assessment, and the aim is to obtain as high a degree of realism as possible within the various constraints operating (e.g., time, cost, availability of equipment)

9.   Paper-and-pencil performance assessment is useful as a terminal measure in many areas (e.g., writing, drawing, problem solving) and cam serve as a first step toward hands-on performance in others (e.g., procedure for repairing an automobile engine)

10.  The identification test is typically concerned with identifying the tools, equipment, and procedures needed for a performance task and servers as an indirect measure of performance, or as an instructional device to prepare students for actual performance.

11.  A structured performance test provides for an assessment under standard, controlled –conditions (e.g., locating a malfunction in electronic equipment). The tools, equipment, conditions, and standards performance are all carefully prescribed.

12.  Performance assessment based on simulated performance (e.g., driver’s training simulator) and the work sample (e.g., analyze business data on.

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